Systematic Reviews: Developing your question

PECO stands for Population, Exposure, Comparator, Outcome measures.

Very similar to PICO, except the intervention has been substituted for exposure. 

P - Population/Patient Problem - this is the group of people or particular condition you are investigating

E - Exposure - this is what the population has been deliberately or unintentionally exposed to

C - Comparison/Control - this is the comparator; if you are investigating two types of drugs or therapies

O - Outcome - this is what you are measuring; the desired effects you expect to see as a result of implementing the intervention to alleviate the condition / help the patient(s)

EXAMPLE - In elderly smokers (P), how does counselling (E) compared with nicotine replacement therapy (C) affect  smoking cessation rates (O)?

PIO stands for Population, Intervention, Outcome measures.

Sometimes the topic you investigate may not have a comparison, or you might be interested in researching one specific intervention. 

P - Population/Patient Problem - this is the group of people or particular condition you are investigating

I - Intervention - this is the treatment, what you are going to implement in order to alleviate the condition / help the patient(s)

O - Outcome - this is what you are measuring; the desired effects you expect to see as a result of implementing the intervention to alleviate the condition / help the patient(s)

EXAMPLE - How effective is shockwave therapy (I) in treating Achilles tendonitis (O) in professional tennis players (P)?

Please click the link below to access research question template:

PICO / PIO / PEO Question Template

PEO questions are typically used for qualitative research and aim to explore relationships / associations.

P - Population/Patient/Problem - this is group of people or particular condition you are investigating

E - Exposure - this is what the population/patient have been exposed to or their pre-existing conditions

O - Outcome - this is what you are measuring; the desired effects you expect to see as a result of implementing the intervention to alleviate the condition / help the patient(s)

EXAMPLE - What are the attitudes (O) of rheumatology nurse specialists (P) towards caring for patients aged 18-40 with rheumatoid arthritis (E)?

Note: In this example the nurses are the population (P) because it is their experiences we are investigating. 

Please click the link below to access research question template:

PICO / PIO / PEO Question Template

SPICE can be used for both quantitative and qualitative studies and evaluates outcomes of interventions, projects and services.

S - Setting - where? For example, emergency room

P - Perspective - who? Are these staff, patients or relatives?

I - Intervention/Interest - what? This is the treatment you are going to implement or the phenomena you are investigating

C - Comparison - compared with what? This is the comparator; if you are investigating two types of drugs or therapies

E - Evaluation - with what result? This is what you are intending to find as a result of conducting the study / research

EXAMPLE - What are patients' (P) views and attitudes (E) on waiting times (I) in hospital emergency departments (S)? 

SPIDER is primarily used for qualitative and mixed methods research.

S - Sample  - the who of your study, population of interest

P I - Phenomenon of Interest - the what of your research; the topic of investigation e.g. a process, event, activity or experience

D - Design - how are you going to gather your data? e.g. interview, survey, questionnaire, etc.

E - Evaluation - the result / outcome; e.g. experiences, perceptions, views, etc.

R - Research Type - qualitative, quantitative or mixed-methods

EXAMPLE - What are the experiences (E) of women (S) undergoing Hormone Replacement Therapy (PI)? 

ECLIPSE is used for qualitative research and investigates the outcomes of a policy or service. 

E - Expectation - what is the information needed for? 

C - Client Group - who is the information needed for? / At whom is the service aimed? 

L - Location - where is the client group / service based? 

I -  Impact - what is the change in service (if any) which is being looked for? What would constitute success? How is this being measured?

P - Professionals - who is involved in providing / improving service?

S - Service - for which service are you looking for information? e.g. outpatient services, nurse-led clinics, intermediate care

EXAMPLE - How can we improve communication procedures (E) among staff (P) to ensure more cohesive support (I) to severely anxious pupils (C) in our school (L)?

Example from University of the West of Scotland (n.d.).